Narrative

Let us turn to the developments that have taken place in prose fiction (especially novels and short stories) in the last thirty years. After looking at the history of Basque novel writing, it soon becomes evident that this is the genre that has evolved and grown most dramatically. To simplify matters greatly, it can be said that the Basque novel was born at the end of the 19th century, after the realist current had been exhausted. It was Txomin Agirre's romantic historical novel Auñemendiko lorea ("The Flower of Auñemendi", 1897) that marked the change. His later, very successful novels Kresala ("Saltwater", 1906) and Garoa ("Dew", 1912) set parameters for modern novel writing that lasted until the second half of the 20th century, when Txillardegi's Leturiaren egunkari ezkutua ("Leturia's Hidden Diary", 1957) introduced Basque literature's first existentialist and truly modern hero.

As mentioned, the events that defined the 1960s in the Basque Country (economic and industrial growth, the establishment of Basque schools, the unification of the Basque language, political activity against the dictatorship's resistance to Euskera, campaigns for Basque language-learning, etc.) provided the right atmosphere for a revolution that turned the existing literary attitudes on their heads. The Basque publishing world felt these airs of renewal too: more publishing houses opened and, as a result, Basque book production increased, especially in the 1970s. Examples of the dynamism of those years were the new wave of Basque singers and dramatists, and the Durango Bookfair (est. 1965). In the years 1957-1976, many new types of novels enriched the Basque literary landscape. Some examples are Jon Mirande's psychological novel Haur besotakoa ("The Goddaughter", 1970) as well as the social novels written by authors such as Xabier Gereño, Txomin Peillen and Xabier Amuriza, and the allegorical novels of Mikel Zarate and Anjel Lertxundi. In 1969, Ramon Saizarbitoria published Egunero hasten delako ("Because It Begins Every Day"), a novel that internalises the process of writing and in doing so discovers a different way of understanding modernity. In his introduction to Patri Urkizu's Sekulorum Sekulotan ("Never Forever", 1975), Saizarbitoria referred to phenomenology and structuralism to explain how both his own and Urkizu's poetic methods were far removed from the experimental novel many Basque modernizers had proposed, and drew analogies with Alain Robbe-Grillet and Sollers' works.

Other Basque authors have written experimental literature. Bernardo Atxaga, for example, did so in Ziutateaz ("About the City", 1976), and Koldo Izagirre in Zergaitik bai ("Just Because", 1976). In the same year, Saizarbitoria published a novel, Ene Jesus ("Oh Jesus"), concerned with the impossibility of writing, thus creating a poetics of silence that explored the limits of modernity. In the following years, fewer experimental novels were written, and an era of novel writing engaged in recovering the pleasure of story-telling was born. Examples of this are two novels published in 1979: J.A. Arrieta's Abuztuaren 15eko bazkalondoa ("The Meal on the 15th August") and Arantxa Urretabizkaia's Zergaitik Panpox ("Why, Darling"). Both are remarkable for the modernity of their narrative strategies; in one, friends recollect passages from their lives after a meal, and in the other an abandoned mother unravels the routine sadness of her life. Since then, Basque novel writing has been enriched by many different typologies. As noted, the Basque literary system became stronger and more established in the 1980s. These days, when market forces rule the publishing world, the novel is the favoured genre, the genre that determines an author's success.

It could be said that most Basque novels of the last thirty years look inward (they are concerned with the subjective point of view, the narrative "I"), and that when they do look outward, they prefer to deal with the effect of an event on a character's conscience, rather than giving an objective account of events. Many other types of novels are being written, including genre novels (detective novels, comic novels and travelogues), new historical novels (including historiographic metafiction) and hybrids that mix novel- and essay-writing. It is no exaggeration to say that today's literary landscape is eclectic.

As far as the first typology is concerned – the novels rooted in subjectivity – their main concern is with exploring the voice of the "I"; such novels tell a story through the prism of their protagonists' personal and moral predicaments. Some examples are Arantxa Urretabizkaia'a Koaderno gorria ("The Red Notebook", 1998), Juan Luis Zabala's Agur, Euzkadi ("Goodbye, Euzkadi", 2000), Xabier Mendiguren's Bekatuaren itzala ("The Shadow of Sin", 1995), Ramon Saizarbitoria's Hamaika Pauso ("Innumerable Steps", 1995), Bihotz bi ("Two Hearts", 1996) and Gorde nazazu lurpean ("Keep Me in the Earth", 2000), Lourdes Oñederra's Eta emakumeari sugeak esan zion ("And the Serpent Said to the Woman", 1999), Ixiar Rozas' Edo zu, edo ni ("It's You or Me", 2000), Unai Elorriaga's SPrako tranbia ("Tram to SP", 2001), Laura Mintegi's Sisifo maite minez ("To Sisyphus, With Love" 2001) and Pello Lizarralde's Larrepetit (2002).

Other recent novels employ different types of realist strategies. By appropriating the innovations of the contemporary novel and the characteristics of other art forms (especially cinema), literary realism has undergone several transformations in the 20th century: we have had objectivist realism, critical realism, socialist realism, magic realism, dirty realism, and so on. Although today's realist novels deal with their surrounding reality, most often they mimic it in a subjective manner. To create this subjective realism, the literary language must arm itself with different images, be they memories, dreams or fantasies, or even naturalist representations of the habits of contemporary society. The themes of the realist tradition resurface in the contemporary realist novel: identity crises, uprooting, historic events, etc. There are examples of magic realism among Basque novels, too: Juan Mari Irigoien's Poliedroaren hostoak ("The Leafs of the Polyhedron", 1982) and Babilonia (1989), Bernardo Atxaga's Bi anai ("Two Brothers", 1985), and Anjel Lertxundi's Hamaseigarrenean, aidanez ("On the Sixteenth, They Say", 1983). Examples of gritty urban realism, are Edorta Jimenez's Speed gauak ("Speed Nights", 1991) and Ur Apalategi's Gauak eta hiriak ("Nights and Cities", 1997). Also, novels that deal with significant historical events have become more popular in the last few decades. Some of them deal with the Spanish Civil War, such as Koldo Izagirre's Euzkadi merezi zuten ("They Deserved Euzkadi", 1984), Inazio Mujika Iraola's Gerezi denbora ("Cherry Season", 1999), Andoni Egaña's Pausoa noiz luzatu ("Walk Faster", 1999) and Edorta Jimenez's Azken fusila ("The Last Shotgun", 1993). Another recurrent subject is the Basque terrorist group ETA. The many novels that dealt with ETA in the 1970s and 1980s include: Xabier Amurizar's Hil ala bizi ("To Live or Die", 1973), Ramon Saizarbitoria's 100 metro (1976), Mario Onaindia's Grand Placen aurkituko gara ("We'll Meet in Grand Place", 1983), Txillardegi's Exkixu (1988), Joxemari Iturralde's Izua hemen ("Fear is Here", 1989) and Hasier Etxeberria's Mugetan ("In the Frontier", 1989). In the 1990s the following books about ETA were published: Mikel Hernández Abaitua's Etorriko haiz nirekin? ("Will You Come with Me?", 1991) and Ohe bat ozeanoaren erdian ("A Bed in the Middle of the Ocean", 2001), Bernardo Atxaga's Gizona bere bakardadean (1) (1993) and Zeru horiek (2) (1995), Laura Mintegi's Nerea eta biok (3) (1994), Ramon Saizarbitoria's Hamaika pauso ("Innumerable Steps", 1995), Xabier Mendiguren's Berriro igo nauzu ("We Went Up Again", 1997), Pello Zabaleta's Arian ari ("In It", 1996), Joxe Belmonte's Hamar urte barru ("In Ten Year's Time", 2002), and Anjel Lertxundi's Zorion perfektua ("Perfect Happiness", 2002). Finally, I should point out the themes of exile and uprootedness, which have been interestingly depicted in the novels published in the last few years. Some examples of this new tendency are Aingeru Epaltza's Tigre ehizan ("Hunting Tigers", 1996), Joseba Sarrionandia's Lagun izoztua ("The Frozen Friend", 2001) and Bernardo Atxaga's Soinujolearen semea ("The Accordion Player's Son", 2003).

In general terms, the recovered taste for storytelling has resulted in the popularization of detective fiction (in the form of spy novels, mystery novels and noir novels). In noir novels, a critical perspective on contemporary society is brought into the narrative by means of suspense. Some of the most remarkable Basque detective novels are: Gotzon Garate's Izurri berria ("The New Plague", 1984); Xabier Kintana's Ta Marbuta (1984); Xabier Montoia's Non dago Stalin? ("Where's Stalin?", 1991); Itxaro Borda's trilogy (Bakean ützi arte ("Until Left Alone", 1994), Bizi nizano munduan ("My World", 1996), Amorezko pena baño ("More Than Heartache", 1996); Hasier Etxeberria's Mugetan ("In the Frontier", 1989) and Arrainak ura baino ("Like Fish to Water", 1998); Aingeru Epaltza's Ur Uherrak ("Turbulent Waters", 1993) and Rock'n'Roll (2000); Jon Alonso's Katebegi galdua ("The Missing Link", 1995); Harkaitz Cano's Beluna Jazz (1996) and Pasaia Blues (1998); and Joxemari Iturralde's Euliak ez dira argazkietan azaltzen ("Flies Never Appear in Photographs", 2000).

Whereas the classic historical novels were written for didactic, moral or nationalist purposes (Jon Etxaide's novels from the 1950s are an example), in the last few decades a new historical perspective has been in vogue, of the kind where a story is told around a character's fictional biography. Most often we find modern texts that refuse to act as witness accounts of historical eras, as the authors prefer not to treat the novel as a classic historical novel. Some examples are Mario Onaindia's Gillen Garateako batxilerra ("Gillen Garatea's Education", 1983), Joxemari Iturralde's Nafarroako artizarra ("Venus Over Navarra's Sky", 1984), Anjel Lertxundi's Otto Pette (1994), Pello Zabaleta's trilogy: Ukoreka ("Disequilibrium", 1994), Badena dena da ("What Is, Is All", 1995) and Arian ari ("In It", 1996), Andolin Eguzkitza's Herioaren itzalpeetan ("In the Shadow of Death", 1999) and Joan Mari Irigoien's Lur bat haratago ("A Land Beyond", 2000).

As regards the short story, this is a modern form that has fully developed in Basque only in the last few years. The writer and publisher Inazio Mujika Iraola considers that Anjel Lertxundi's collection Hunik arrats artean ("Wait Until Dusk", 1970) is the first true example of the modern Basque short story collection. Even though single short stories and even collective books had been published before, it was Lertxundi who first found an independent, fully rounded formula for his work. Before him there were more traditional short-story writers such as Jaurtarkol and Nemesio Etxaniz, and the writer who is thought of as the precursor of the modern Basque short story, Martin Ugalde, who in 1961 published the collection Iltzalleak ("The Assassins"). Following in Ugalde's footsteps came Gabriel Aresti with Ipuinak, ("Short Stories", 1979), Jon Mirande with Gauez parke batean ("Night at the Park", 1984) and Jean Etxepare with Mendekoste gereziak eta beste ("Pentecostal Cherries and Other Stories", 1963). In any case, it was only after the 1970s that modern short-story writing became established in the Basque country. Many collections of popular tales written in simple Basque were published during those years. But we would like to underline the books that experimented with hybridisation and other literary perspectives, such as Ziutateaz ("About the City", 1976), by Bernardo Atxaga, and Zergatik bai ("Just Because", 1976) by Koldo Izagirre, as well as many of the works that were published in the Ustela series, for example, Joxe Agustin Arrieta's Bidaia. Termitosti ("Journey", 1978), some short stories by Jon Casenave, and Ibon Sarasola's Joan eta Ane zigarro bat erretzen ("Joan and Ane Smoke a Cigarette", 1977). In the 1980s, it became more evident that the short story genre was becoming stronger and more widespread. Due to the social factors previously mentioned (democracy brought with it a proliferation of literary prizes, magazines and grants), more and more collections of short stories were published and welcomed into the literary sphere. Some of the collections published in the 1980s were: Anjel Lertxundi's Aise eman zenidan eskua ("You Gave Me Your Hand") and Gotzon Garate's Lehortean ("The Drought"). A very important element in the cultural landscape of the 1980s was the group POTT, formed by Bernardo Atxaga, Joseba Sarrionandia, Ruper Ordorika, Joxemari Iturralde, Jon Juaristi and Manu Erzilla. They were great players in the renewal of the genre and were determined to stretch the cultural framework of the era. They appropriated the Anglo-Saxon tradition (in the form of detective fiction, adventure stories, etc.), and their way into that tradition wound through the works of Jorge Luis Borges, who provided them with the universal treasure hidden in his labyrinthine library. As far as short-story writing is concerned, the most remarkable results of the POTT enterprise were two collections: Joseba Sarrionandia's Narrazioak ("Narrations", 1983) and Bernardo Atxaga's Obabakoak (4) (1988). Other interesting volumes were published in the following years, such as Iturralde's Pic-nic arbasoekin ("Picnic with the Ancestors", 1985) and Hernandez Abaitua's Panpinen erreinua ("The Dolls' Kingdom", 1985). At the same time, new short story writers started to become known, e.g. Laura Mintegi, Jose Antonio Mujika and Hasier Etxeberria. Slowly, all sorts of different short stories were emerging, form fantastic tales that combined metafiction with an underground atmosphere (from authors like Iturralde or Hernandez Abaitua), to those that adapted to a more realistic mould (Laura Mintegi or Xabier Mendiguren). In other words, Basque short-story writing was multi-faceted. Many new writers added a wealth of styles to the already eclectic literary landscape of the 1990s. They adapted forms of realism emerging from North and South America. Some of the followers of dirty realism are Xabier Mendiguren's Hamalau ("Fourteen", 1992), Pako Aristi's Auto-stop-eko ipuinak ("Hitchhiking Stories", 1992), Edorta Jimenez's Manhattan (1994), Xabier Montoia's Gasteizko hondartzak ("The Beaches of Gazteiz", 1997), and Jokin Muñoz's Bizia lo ("Life Asleep", 2003). As for fantastic realism, some examples are Hernandez Abaitua's Ispiluak ("Mirrors", 1985), Imanol Zurutuza's Haizeak iparlaino beltzak dakartzanean ("When the Wind Brings Northerly Clouds", 1989), and Hasier Etxeberria's Karramarroaren aztarnak ("The Crab's Claws", 1997). Others joined the metafictional wave: Juan Garzia with Itzalen itzal ("Shadow of Shadows", 1994) and Iban Zaldua with Itzalak ("Shadows", 2004). Some wrote stories that were both lyrical and ironic. Some examples are Harkaitz Cano's Telefono kaiolatua ("The Caged Phone", 1997), Juan Luis Zabala's Ahanzturaren artxipielagoa ("The Archipelago of Forgetfulness", 1987) and Karlos Linazasoro's Ez balego beste mundurik ("If There Were No Other World", 2001). Other authors are more interested in writing about human relationships, and their collections reflect this. Examples are Arantxa Iturbe's Ezer baino lehen ("Before Anything Else", 1992), Jasone Osoro's Korapiloak ("Knots", 2000) or Xabier Montoia's Emakume biboteduna ("The Moustachioed Woman", 1992). Javi Cillero, on the other hand, brings literature and cinema together in Hollywood eta biok ("Hollywood and I", 1999), while Iban Zaldua (Traizioak ("Betrayals", 2001) and Joseba Sarrionandia (Han izanik hona naiz ("There Then Here Now", 1992) are inspired by the short short story. And Pello Lizarralde, for example, manages to conjure up amazing atmospheres with a minimalist prose inspired by silence (Un ange passe-isilaldietan- ("An Angel Passes – In Silence", 1998).

The variety of styles in contemporary Basque short stories cannot be denied. There are writers who emulate Cortázar in their search for a new definition of the fantastic (Linazasoro or Zaldua), Carver in their realist delivery (Cano, Lizarralde, Aristi, Montoia...), and Monterrosso in their fondness for brevity and irony (Sarrionandia...). There are also writers who join Borges and Calvino in their literary games (Garzia, Zaldua, Cillero, Lertxundi). In any case, it is clear that Basque short-story writing is influenced by the masters of the genre.

Another interesting development to have emerged of late is the short-story cycle, or volumes of interlinked short stories. The internationally renowned Obabakoak is one example, but we also have Xabier Montoia's Gasteizko hondartzak ("The Beaches of Gazteiz", 1997) and Juan Garzia's Itzalen itzal ("Shadow of Shadows", 1994). A slight variation on these are collections of short stories linked by theme, such as Linazasoro's Ezer baino lehen ("Before Anything Else") or Iban Zaldua and Gerardo Markuleta's Ipuin euskaldunak ("Basque Tales").

As I hope to have shown, Basque literature has a lot to offer, not only to Basque readers, but, thanks to translation, to the numerous readers around the world who have yet to encounter it.

NOTES

(1) The Lone Man, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Harvill, London, 1996

(2) The Lone Woman, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Harvill, London, 1999

(3) Nerea and I, translated by Linda White, Peter Lang Publishing, 2005

(4) Obabakoak, translated by Margaret Jull Costa, Harvill, London, 1992